The Man Who Reached for the Moon: The Legacy of Walter S. McAfee

Long before Neil Armstrong took his "one small step," a brilliant African American mathematician and physicist named Walter S. McAfee was busy proving that we could reach the celestial bodies with more than just our eyes. While his name might not be as instantly recognizable as some of his contemporaries, McAfee’s calculations were the invisible threads that first connected Earth to the Moon.

---

A Mind Built for the Stars

Born in 1914 in Ore City, Texas, McAfee was one of nine children. His journey from a segregated South to the leading edge of the Space Age is a testament to his sheer intellectual force. After earning degrees from Wiley College and Ohio State University, he joined the U.S. Army Signal Corps Laboratory at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, in 1942.

It was here, during the height of World War II and the dawn of the Cold War, that McAfee would make his most enduring mark on science.

Project Diana: Bouncing Radar off the Moon

In 1946, a top-secret project codenamed Project Diana aimed to determine if a high-frequency radio signal could penetrate the Earth’s ionosphere. The goal was simple but audacious: beam a radar signal at the Moon and see if it reflected back.

The engineering challenge was immense. To succeed, the team needed to account for the Doppler Effect—the change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer moving relative to the source. Because the Earth is rotating and the Moon is orbiting, the "target" was constantly moving.

McAfee was the mathematical engine of the project. He calculated the precise radar cross-section of the Moon and predicted the required power and frequency shifts. On January 10, 1946, the team successfully detected the first echo from the Moon. This moment didn't just prove we could communicate through space; it effectively gave birth to radio astronomy.

The Hidden Figure of Fort Monmouth

Despite his pivotal role, McAfee was initially left out of the public news releases regarding Project Diana. It wasn't until the 25th anniversary of the event in 1971 that he was formally recognized for his contributions.

McAfee’s career continued to soar long after the Moon echo. He earned a Ph.D. from Cornell University (studying under Hans Bethe) and became the first African American to be promoted to GS-16, a high-level federal civil service rank. He spent decades contributing to:

• Nuclear weapons testing (high-altitude tracking)

• Satellite communications

• Electronic warfare sensors

A Lasting Impact

Walter S. McAfee passed away in 1995, but his legacy lives on through the McAfee Center at Fort Monmouth and various scholarships that support minority students in STEM. He was a pioneer who broke both scientific and social barriers, proving that the math doesn't care about the color of your skin—it only cares if you're right.

And McAfee was exactly right.

Thomas Fuller: The Astonishing "Virginia Calculator"

Born in Africa in 1710, Thomas Fuller, often referred to as "Negro Demus" and, more famously, "The Virginia Calculator," was a remarkable individual whose extraordinary mathematical abilities captivated those who encountered him. His story, though not extensively documented, offers a powerful testament to the inherent intellectual capacity of enslaved people, a truth often denied during his lifetime.

Biography

Thomas Fuller was born in 1710 in what is believed to be modern-day Benin, West Africa. At the age of 14, he was tragically kidnapped and forcibly brought to America, sold into slavery, and transported to the colony of Virginia. He lived his life enslaved on a farm near Alexandria, Virginia, under the ownership of Presley and Elizabeth Cox.

Despite the profound injustices and lack of formal education inherent in his circumstances, Fuller developed an astounding mental prowess for mathematics. He could perform complex calculations purely in his head with incredible speed and accuracy. His abilities became something of a local legend.

One of the most well-known anecdotes about Fuller involves a challenge posed to him by two white gentlemen, William Hartshorne and Dr. Benjamin Rush, around 1788. They had heard of his reputation and decided to test his skills. They asked him to calculate the number of seconds in a year and a half. Fuller reportedly gave the correct answer – 47,304,000 – in about two minutes. When he was told his answer was incorrect because they had arrived at a smaller number, Fuller quickly retorted, "Stop, massa, you forget de leap year." Upon recalculating, they found Fuller was indeed correct.

Another problem presented to him was to determine how many grains of corn would make a bushel if 100 grains filled a pint. He correctly answered 128,000. These demonstrations showcased not just his ability to recall mathematical facts but his capacity for intricate mental arithmetic and logical reasoning.

Legacy

Thomas Fuller died in 1790 at the age of 80. His story, though largely preserved through anecdotal accounts, served as a powerful counter-argument to the racist ideologies prevalent during his time, which asserted the intellectual inferiority of Black people. His existence alone challenged the very foundations of slavery by demonstrating undeniable genius under the most oppressive conditions.

Fuller's legacy is important for several reasons:

• Challenging Racism: His mental acuity directly contradicted the pseudoscientific beliefs used to justify slavery and racial hierarchy. He proved that intelligence was not exclusive to any race.

• Symbol of Resilience: Fuller's ability to cultivate such a remarkable skill despite being denied education and freedom is a testament to human resilience and the indomitable spirit.

• Early African American Intellectual: He stands as one of the earliest documented African American intellectuals in U.S. history, paving the way for future generations to be recognized for their contributions.

While no written works or extensive personal accounts from Fuller himself exist due to his enslaved status, his story was recorded and shared by abolitionists and those who sought to highlight the humanity and intelligence of Black individuals. His story continues to be a point of fascination and inspiration, reminding us of the countless untold stories of brilliance stifled by slavery.

Sources and Further Reading

• "Thomas Fuller." Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fuller_(calculator)

• "Thomas Fuller, the 'Virginia Calculator'." African American Registry. https://aaregistry.org/story/thomas-fuller-the-virginia-calculator/

• "Extraordinary Mental Calculators." The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, Scotland. https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Fuller.html

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Thomas Fuller also known as "Negro Demus" and the "Virginia Calculator".
Born 1710 -Benin.
Died 1790 -United States. pic.twitter.com/Yo1vQkVT3z

— The Cake Lady (@got_cake) February 20, 2026

Gladys West: The Unsung Heroine Who Mapped Our World

In the annals of scientific history, there are countless brilliant minds whose contributions have shaped our understanding of the world. Yet, some remain largely unsung, their pivotal work only coming to light decades later. One such remarkable individual is Dr. Gladys West, a mathematician whose groundbreaking calculations were instrumental in the development of the Global Positioning System (GPS). Her story is one of perseverance, intellect, and an unwavering dedication to her craft, breaking barriers in an era of segregation and gender bias.

A Brilliant Mind Forged in Rural Virginia

Gladys Mae Brown was born in 1930 in Sutherland, Virginia, to a family of farmers. Growing up in a rural, segregated community, West recognized early on that education was her path to a different future. "I knew that I had to get an education if I was going to get out of the tobacco fields and the corn fields," she recalled in an interview with The Guardian. This determination fueled her academic pursuits, leading her to excel in school and eventually earn a scholarship to Virginia State College (now Virginia State University).

In 1956, West graduated with a degree in mathematics, a field largely dominated by men at the time. Undeterred, she took a teaching position for two years before returning to Virginia State for her master's degree. It was shortly after this that she embarked on a career that would unknowingly, at the time, change the world.

Breaking Barriers at Dahlgren

In 1956, Gladys West was hired at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren, Virginia, now known as the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division. She was one of only four Black employees and just two Black women in the department. This was a challenging environment, but West's brilliance quickly shone through. She became a "human computer," performing complex mathematical calculations by hand.

Her early work involved programming large-scale computers, analyzing satellite data, and developing geodetic models – precise mathematical descriptions of the Earth's shape. This was crucial for understanding satellite orbits and for creating accurate maps. "She rose through the ranks, working on an astronomical number of mathematical models, and for many years, she was the only woman in the room," notes The Virginian-Pilot.

The Genesis of GPS: Modeling the Earth

From the 1970s through the 1980s, West played a pivotal role in an astronomical study that proved the feasibility of precisely modeling the Earth's shape – known as the geoid – from satellite altimeter data. This involved meticulously processing data from satellites like GEOS 3 and Seasat, which measured the exact distance from the satellite to the ocean surface.

Her team's efforts culminated in the development of an extremely accurate geodetic model of the Earth. This model, often referred to as a "mathematical model of the Earth's shape and gravity field," became the fundamental basis for the modern GPS. "When you're dealing with something like that, you're looking at things like gravitational pulls, tidal forces, and other distortions," West explained in a conversation with NASA. "It's not just a perfect sphere." Her work accounted for these subtle variations, allowing for incredibly precise location calculations.

Recognition and Legacy

Despite her monumental contributions, West's work remained largely unrecognized by the public for decades. It wasn't until a member of her sorority, Alpha Kappa Alpha, read a short biography she had submitted for an alumni event that her story began to emerge.

In 2018, Dr. Gladys West was inducted into the Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame, one of the highest honors bestowed by the Air Force Space Command. The same year, she was recognized by the Virginia General Assembly for her contributions to GPS technology. In 2021, she was awarded the Prince Philip Medal by the Royal Academy of Engineering.

"My biggest accomplishment was being able to work with the team and making it all happen," West humbly stated. Her legacy extends far beyond the technical specifications of GPS. She stands as an inspiration, a testament to the power of intellect, resilience, and quiet determination in overcoming societal barriers.

Today, every time we use our smartphones to navigate, every time a pilot lands a plane using precision guidance, and every time a lost traveler finds their way, we owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Gladys West. Her intricate calculations, once performed in the quiet corridors of a naval base, now guide billions across the globe, silently mapping our world.

Sources:

• The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/global/2020/feb/20/gladys-west-the-hidden-figure-who-helped-develop-gps

• The Virginian-Pilot: https://www.pilotonline.com/2018/02/08/meet-gladys-west-one-of-the-hidden-figures-behind-gps/

• NASA: Various publications and interviews featuring Gladys West. (Specific direct links may vary over time, but general information is widely available on NASA's site and related science news.)

• Virginia State University: https://www.vsu.edu/news/2021/gladys-west-royal-academy-of-engineering.php

• Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division: (Information on the history of the facility and its contributions to science)

---

Never forget Dr. Gladys West, an American mathematician who joined her ancestors earlie this year at age 90. Her work on mathematical modeling helped develop the Global Positioning System (GPS). 🕊️ pic.twitter.com/iLw0NcYeNh

— Typical African (@Joe__Bassey) February 17, 2026

Mathematics Only Makes Sense If God Exists

 

If atheism is true… explain this. https://t.co/JYyqqkWnVV

— Darwin to Jesus (@darwintojesus) December 10, 2025

The Fourier Series Explainer

 

The Fourier series is a way to represent any periodic function as a sum of simple sine and cosine waves.

In essence, it breaks down complex signals into a combination of basic trigonometric functions, making it a powerful tool in mathematics, physics, and engineering for… pic.twitter.com/gx4PieGiII

— Physics In History (@PhysInHistory) September 23, 2025

How Imaginary Numbers Were Invented

Live with Dr. Jason Lisle from Colorado Springs

God and Mathematics

Does God explain the mathematical realm? William Lane Craig vs Sir Roger...

We did not invent mathematics. We discovered it. 

Truthbomb Apologetics: Video: The Applicability of Mathematics by William Lane Craig

Truthbomb Apologetics: Video: The Applicability of Mathematics by William Lane Craig

Truthbomb Apologetics: God and Abstract Objects

I think that this particular podcast is very interesting. William Lane Craig discusses abstract objects and how they relate to God.  It bothered me that Craig, while arguing that Moral values and obligations can only be grounded in the being of God, he does not want to think the same of abstract objects. Mathematics and morals are all sourced from God. Follow the link to get to the podcast.

Truthbomb Apologetics: God and Abstract Objects

10 Most Important Numbers In The World - YouTube

10 Most Important Numbers In The World - YouTube

Is Math a Feature of the Universe or a Feature of Human Creation? | Idea Channel | PBS - YouTube

The Idea Channel recently posted an interesting video regarding the question of the nature of mathematics: Is mathematics a feature of the universe that we discover or is it something that people made up and is defined by us.  I had thought that the majority of Mathematicians have conclude that mathematics is discovered, like Gravity, not invented. The video below agrees that the majority of mathematicians would support that.



Is Math a Feature of the Universe or a Feature of Human Creation? | Idea Channel | PBS - YouTube

In the interest of  presenting multiple viewpoints, this discussion was brought up on the Debunking Christianity. Many atheists are committed to the proposition that mathematics has no transcendent existence beyond the human brain. I can see why. If they grant that mathematics is true whether or not there are people then what about morality?  Are some thing moral and immoral no matter the society, time, or place? I would say that this is the truth.It allows them to try to sidestep God. Getting back to math for a moment. was Calculus true before Newton and Leibniz? I would say for sure: yes! This got to be such a big deal on Debunking Christianity that John Loftus posted a full article on this that he says comes from a mathematician:

In the beginning, people like you had a rock. The idea of "one" was invented to describe the number of things you had. Then later, you found another rock, and the idea of "two" was invented to describe the situation for when you had one rock and added another rock to your pile. It was realized that the same applies not just to rocks, and numbers were given abstract meaning of their own. Arbitrary symbols, though not arbitrary like "A+A=B" (really, you embarrass yourself) for these numbers were eventually assigned.

A lot of time passed, and a lot of effort was involved in trying to understand how things work, but for a lot of it, like the different "eye combinations" on "dices" it just comes down to counting. If you're careful, you can count 36 ways that any distinct "eye combinations" on (two) "dices" can occur, and you can also count how many of them are a particular "eye combination," e.g. "snake eyes," which can occur in one way only. Baby probability theory hypothesized (propensitist approach) that 1 out of 36 possible outcomes, each equally likely, implies "snake eyes" has a 1/36 chance of happening, and when rolling two "dices" many, many times over, that's what we see (frequentist approach). Eventually the two approaches were connected, but not married.

That you think the dice are following some magical mathematical rules is sheer nonsense. The mathematical rules (counting and proportions, in this case) were invented painstakingly over millennia for people to better describe what they experience. The laws are descriptive, not proscriptive.

Mathematician Dr. James Lindsay Explains How Math Originated

I disagree with him. Mathematics is more than just symbols. Those symbols are definitely agreed upon by people, but not the mathematics theory or concepts themselves. 3 + 6 = bob is really no different than 3+6=9 because we could have been counting like 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, bob. However the underlying concepts is only being symbolized.

Happy Pi Day!!!!

Today is 3.14 2013 - Pi Day!

High Five of the Day - God and the Applicability of Mathematics | Reasonable Faith

In his recent debate with Dr Rosenberg,  William Lane Craig touched an argument for God's existence using the applicability of mathematics to the natural world. On the his website, Dr Craig was asked the questions:

Isn't it the case that mathematics could, and in my opinion does seem to be, just a useful fiction as you mentioned in your debate? You say something along the lines of "this wouldn't explain how nature seems to be written in the language of mathematics". Isn't it also the case that if mathematical concepts are useful fictions, then they would describe (accurately if well thought out) the universe as apprehended by our perceptions? Shouldn't we expect that our useful fictions would be useful precisely because they accurately describe our observations?
I have thought that perhaps I am missing the point of the argument though. Perhaps it is the case that you aren't saying God must exist because our useful fictions, particularly those of mathematics describing reality, would just be happy coincidence. Indeed, what kind of coincidence would it be that our tools were designed for the purpose they serve? Perhaps you are making the point that without God the universe wouldn't necessarily exhibit these extremely logical properties.
Maybe I'm just completely wrong headed on this. Could you please set me straight?

Read more: http://www.reasonablefaith.org/god-and-the-applicability-of-mathematics#ixzz2Ll8hldKh

Here is a quote from Dr William Lane Craig's Answer:

Your question is about the argument from the applicability of mathematics to the physical world. Question of the Week #277 is about the only place where I have reflected on this question, and I refer you there. Again, it was reading Rosenberg’s own book that prompted me to put this into the form of the theistic argument. For mathematics lies at the foundation of physics, at whose altar Rosenberg bows. Given his scientism (epistemological naturalism), he cannot dismiss applied mathematics as illusory. Rosenberg also emphasizes that naturalism simply cannot tolerate cosmic coincidences. But then what explanation can the naturalist offer for why mathematics is applicable to the physical world, that is to say, for why the physical world is imbued with the complex mathematical structure that physics discovers. Naturalism founders in this regard, whereas theism has an easy answer: God created the universe on the mathematical structure that He had in mind.

Read more: http://www.reasonablefaith.org/god-and-the-applicability-of-mathematics#ixzz2Ll4vYMXw

I think reading the full response is  a good idea. I have to say that I have often thought that the fact that we can use mathematics to model the universe is good evidence that there is a rational mind that not only brought the universe into being but holds it together. I've been fascinated by the fact that so many physical constants contain numbers and multiples of  Pi, 2, and 3. It seems beyond rationality to concluded this is just a coincidence not a fingerprint or a signature.

God and the Applicability of Mathematics | Reasonable Faith

QUESTION: Will We Ever Run Out of New Music?

QUESTION: Will We Ever Run Out of New Music?

How Big is Infinity? [Video]

How Big is Infinity? [Video]

A World with No Math - Save the Children

Ever thought about how much the world would suck without math? This is a video promoting education for children in mathematics especially in less developed countries.




A World with No Math - Save the Children

Desposyni: The Mighty Mathematician You’ve Never Heard Of

I had never heard of Amalie Noether but it turns out that we all owe her.

She invented a theorem that united with magisterial concision two conceptual pillars of physics: symmetry in nature and the universal laws of conservation. Some consider Noether’s theorem, as it is now called, as important as Einstein’s theory of relativity; it undergirds much of today’s vanguard research in physics, including the hunt for the almighty Higgs boson. 

I really liked this article. Really important information. 

Desposyni: The Mighty Mathematician You’ve Never Heard Of

Blaise’s Best Bet, Part 1: an Introduction to Blaise Pascal | Reflections

Dr Kenneth Samples is beginning a series of articles about Blaise Pascal. It's a introduction to the man and his work. Take a look.

Blaise’s Best Bet, Part 1: an Introduction to Blaise Pascal | Reflections